By Julia Pitkänen
While going to lunch at the university, I have entered various discussions about religious dietary practices. These discussions have made me wonder how such restrictions become a stable part of everyday behaviours and how they differ from ordinary food preferences, especially in societies where the religious dietary restrictions are not part of the dominant cultural norm. From a psychological perspective, this raises an interesting question: How are dietary restrictions socially reinforced as behavioural norms, maintaining them even when the surrounding society follows different standards? In other words, what mechanisms aid in maintaining such practises beyond the individual’s own preferences? These questions are particularly relevant in multicultural and religiously diverse societies, where individuals sometimes act within differing or even conflicting social norms. In such contexts, everyday behaviours such as following a specific diet are not just a personal choice, but also connect to broader social belonging, identity, and group membership. As described by B.F Skinner, external reinforcement mechanisms shape individuals’ behaviours, with repeated social reinforcements strengthening and maintaining specific behaviours over time.
Behavioural theory, developed by B.F Skinner, depicts human behaviour as learned in continuous interaction with the environment. From this perspective, behaviours are not fixed, but are continuously shaped and maintained through social reinforcement, where communities and institutions provide cues for accepted behaviours. Skinner notes that in religious framing, certain behaviours maintain symbolic or moral significance, strengthening adherence. However, from a psychological perspective, religious behaviours are shaped through the same processes of reinforcement as other behaviours, where wanted actions are rewarded and unwanted ones discouraged through social consequences. For instance, religious dietary practises such as halal food rules can be reinforced through social approval, community meals, and a sense of belonging, while noncompliance can result in criticism, disapproval, and feelings of guilt. Through reinforcement, religious communities maintain their traditions even when they differ from the dominating cultural norms in society. Over time, the reinforced processes create stable behavioural patterns that become part of norms and traditions for the individual, which are further continually reinforced in past, present, and future social environments, shaping behaviour in religious and cultural contexts.
B.F. Skinner’s behaviour theory is a significant contribution to the psychology of religion, as it goes beyond explaining individuals’ religious practices and also depicts how religious behaviours are learned, maintained, and transmitted from social environments. Particularly relevant in increasingly multicultural societies where individuals come in contact with varying value systems and expected behaviours. In such environments, individuals have to continuously navigate and negotiate which behavioural norms to follow across different social contexts, such as limited food options for restricted diets. From Skinner’s perspective, religion functions as a guiding social force, where religious communities enforce certain behaviours through approval and increased belonging, while discouraging behaviours outside of the standard. While these behaviours may also bring the believers spiritual good or fulfil moral obligations, they are highlighted as mechanisms that enforce specific actions directing behaviour. Simultaneously, the religious systems benefit future-oriented decisions, while the mechanisms support individuals in making sacrifices in the present with planning, responsibility, and social cooperation.
One of the most interesting insights from this perspective is that the mechanisms for maintaining religious and secular behaviours are very similar. As individuals’ choices are negotiated within the surrounding social norms and reinforced through approval and shared expectations, similar patterns of behaviour can be seen whether the choices are motivated by religious reasoning or, for instance, ethics, health, or cultural traditions. This highlights the impact of the social environment on the individual’s psychology, personal choices and behaviours, illustrating how strongly the repeated interactions with the surrounding context shape personal preferences and everyday practises. As such, perhaps the dietary choices are not completely individual decisions, but also partly socially structured outcomes of interaction between the individual’s awareness and collective expectations.
From these perspectives, the initial observation of discussions surrounding religious dietary practises can be interpreted through the psychological lens that highlights the role of the social environment in reinforcing individuals’ behaviours. What may be seen as individuals’ own dietary choices, they are linked to broader social impacts, belonging, and norms. These notions are evident in both religious and secular aspects of behavioural reinforcement. While religious actions can be motivated by underlying moral or spiritual reasons, they rely on similar psychological processes as all other actions. In addition to dietary choices, the perspective can be elaborated on other everyday actions similarly, such as activities, clothing, and use of language, all developed within influences from family, society, and institutional norms. Can you recognise any dietary norms or everyday practices you have that have been shaped by the social environment you are a part of?
Sources
Kressel, Neil J. The Psychology of Religion: A Social Force. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108623902
Brown, Daniel. “Islam in the Twenty-First Century.” In A New Introduction to Islam, 3rd ed., 335–351. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2017.